Journal of Infection and Public Health
Volume 2, Issue 2 , Pages 55-61 , 2009

Reclassifying bioterrorism risk: Are we preparing for the proper pathogens?

  • Georgios Pappas

      Affiliations

    • Institute for Continuing Medical Education of Ioannina, Greece
    • Corresponding Author InformationCorresponding author at: Institute of Continuing Medical Education of Ioannina, H.Trikoupi 10, Ioannina 45333, Greece. Tel.: +30 26510 28289; fax: +30 26510 28289.
    • ,
  • Paraskevi Panagopoulou

      Affiliations

    • Institute for Continuing Medical Education of Ioannina, Greece
    • ,
  • Nikolaos Akritidis

      Affiliations

    • Internal Medicine Department, General Hospital “G. Hatzikosta” of Ioannina, Greece

Received 11 February 2009 ,Revised 23 March 2009 ,Accepted 26 March 2009.

References 

  1. Cunha BA. The cause of the plague of Athens: plague, typhoid, typhus, smallpox, or measles?. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2004;18:29–43
  2. Christopher GW, Cieslak TJ, Pavlin JA, Eitzen EM. Biological warfare. A historical perspective. JAMA. 1997;278:412–417
  3. Roffey R, Tegnell A, Elgh F. Biological warfare in a historical perspective. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2002;8:450–454
  4. Dembek Z, Iton A, Hansen H. A model curriculum for public health bioterrorism education. Public Health Rep. 2005;120:11–18
  5. Helget V, Smith PW. Bioterrorism preparedness: a survey of Nebraska health care institutions. Am J Infect Control. 2002;30:46–48
  6. Henderson DA. The looming threat of bioterrorism. Science. 1999;283:1279–1282
  7. Khan AS, Ashford DA. Ready or not—preparedness for bioterrorism. N Engl J Med. 2001;345:287–289
  8. Markenson D, Dimaggio C, Redlener I. Preparing health professions students for terrorism, disaster, and public health emergencies: core competencies. Acad Med. 2005;80:517–526
  9. Klietmann WF, Ruoff KL. Bioterrorism: implications for the clinical microbiologist. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2001;14:364–381
  10. Inglesby TV, Grossman R, O’Toole T. A plague on your city: observations from TOPOFF. Clin Infect Dis. 2001;32:436–445
  11. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Emergency Preparedness and Response. Bioterrorism Agents/ Diseases. Available at http://www.bt.cdc.gov/agent/agentlist.asp, last accessed March 23, 2009.
  12. World Health Organization. Public health response to biological and chemical weapons: WHO guidance (2004). Available at http://www.who.int/csr/delibepidemics/biochemguide/en/index.html, last accessed March 23, 2009.
  13. NATO Handbook on the medical aspects of NBC defensive operations. AMed-P6(B). Available at http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/usa/doctrine/dod/fm8-9/2toc.htm, last accessed March 23, 2009.
  14. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases. Biodefense. NIAID Category A, B, and C Priority Pathogens. Available at http://www3.niaid.nih.gov/topics/BiodefenseRelated/Biodefense/research/CatA.htm, last accessed March 23, 2009.
  15. Barnett DJ, Balicer RD, Blodgett D, Fews AL, Parker CL, Links JM. The application of the Haddon matrix to public health readiness and response planning. Environ Health Perspect. 2005;113:561–566
  16. Barnett DJ, Balicer RD, Lucey DR, Everly GS, Omer SB, Steinhoff MC, et al. A systematic analytic approach to pandemic influenza preparedness planning. PLoS Med. 2005;2:e359
  17. Madariaga MG, Rezai K, Trenholme GM, Weinstein RA. Q fever: a biological weapon in your backyard. Lancet Infect Dis. 2003;3:709–721
  18. Dennis DT, Inglesby TV, Henderson DA, Bartlett JG, Ascher MS, Eitzen E, et al. Tularemia as a biological weapon: medical and public health management. JAMA. 2001;285:2763–2773
  19. Raoult D, Woodward T, Dumler JS. The history of epidemic typhus. Infect Dis Clin North Am. 2004;18:127–140
  20. O’Toole T. Smallpox: an attack scenario. Emerg Infect Dis. 1999;5:540–546
  21. Smith BT, Inglesby TV, Brimmer E, Borio L, Franco C, Gronvall GK, et al. Navigating the storm: report and recommendations from the Atlantic Storm exercise. Biosecur Bioterror. 2005;3:256–267
  22. Rubinson L, Nuzzo JB, Talmor DS, O’Toole T, Kramer BR, Inglesby TV. Augmentation of hospital critical care capacity after bioterrorist attacks or epidemics: recommendations of the working group on emergency mass critical care. Crit Care Med. 2005;33:2393–2403
  23. Casadevall A, Pirofski LA. The weapon potential of a microbe. Trends Microbiol. 2004;12:259–263
  24. Pappas G, Panagopoulou P, Christou L, Akritidis N. Brucella as a biological weapon. Cell Mol Life Sci. 2006;63:2229–2236
  25. Maltezou HC. Nosocomial influenza: new concepts and practice. Curr Opin Infect Dis. 2008;21:337–343
  26. Seward JF, Galil K, Damon I, Norton SA, Rotz L, Schmid S, et al. Development and experience with an algorithm to evaluate suspected smallpox cases in the United States 2002–2004. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;39:1477–1483
  27. Swartz MN. Recognition and management of anthrax—an update. N Engl J Med. 2001;345:1621–1626
  28. Willis EA. Contamination compensation: gruinard as a menace to the mainland. Med Confl Surviv. 2004;20:334–343
  29. Cupp OS, Walker DE, Hillison J. Agroterrorism in the US: key security challenge for the 21st century. Biosecur Bioterror. 2004;2:97–105
  30. Rotz LD, Khan AS, Lillibridge SR, Ostroff SM, Hughes JM. Public health assessment of potential biological terrorism agents. Emerg Infect Dis. 2002;8:225–230
  31. Pappas G, Seitaridis S, Akritidis N, Tsianos E. Infectious diseases in cinema: virus hunters and killer microbes. Clin Infect Dis. 2003;37:939–942
  32. Beigel JH, Farrar J, Han AM, Hayden FG, Hyer R, de Jong MD, et al. Avian influenza A (H5N1) infection in humans. N Engl J Med. 2005;353:1374–1385
  33. Pappas G, Akritidis N, Tsianos EV. Attack scenarios with rickettsial species–implications for response and management. Ann NY Acad Sci. 2005;1063:451–458
  34. Cosgrove SE, Perl TM, Song X, Sisson SD. Ability of physicians to diagnose and manage illness due to category A bioterrorism agents. Arch Intern Med. 2005;165:2002–2006
  35. Mullin S. Public health and the media: the challenge now faced by bioterrorism. J Urban Health. 2002;79:12
  36. Glass TA, Schoch-Spana M. Bioterrorism and the people: how to vaccinate a city against panic. Clin Infect Dis. 2002;34:217–223
  37. Leavitt JW. Public resistance or cooperation? A tale of smallpox in two cities. Biosecur Bioterror. 2003;1:185–192
  38. Dougall AL, Hayward MC, Baum A. Media exposure to bioterrorism: stress and the anthrax attacks. Psychiatry. 2005;68:28–42
  39. Rubin GJ, Brewin CR, Greenberg N, Simpson J, Wessely S. Psychological and behavioural reactions to the bombings in London on 7 July 2005: cross sectional survey of a representative sample of Londoners. BMJ. 2005;331:606
  40. Kark JD, Goldman S, Epstein L. Iraqi missile attacks on Israel. The association of mortality with a life-threatening stressor. JAMA. 1995;273:1208–1210
  41. Hodge JG, Gable LA, Calves SH. Volunteer health professionals and emergencies: assessing and transforming the legal environment. Biosecur Bioterror. 2005;3:216–223
  42. Annas GJ. Bioterrorism, public health, and civil liberties. N Engl J Med. 2002;346:1337–1342
  43. Relman DA. Bioterrorism—preparing to fight the next war. N Engl J Med. 2006;354:113–115
  44. Blendon RJ, DesRoches CM, Benson JM, Herrmann MJ, Taylor-Clark K, Weldon KJ. The public and the smallpox threat. N Engl J Med. 2003;348:426–432

PII: S1876-0341(09)00026-4

doi: 10.1016/j.jiph.2009.03.002

Journal of Infection and Public Health
Volume 2, Issue 2 , Pages 55-61 , 2009

Article Tools